Journal index

John Calvin was devoted to restore the sanctity of the Genevan townsfolk, by which he understood the practical fulfilment of God’s Law, the Ten Commandments. To be sure, his primary intention was to exert an influence on the texture of daily life of the Genevan population. He delivered sermons and published-edited commentaries in order to establish his new theological ethics, and marital reforms concerning the adequate moral life of a Christian family. He fought against every kind of sexual crime, including fornication and adultery. However, while Calvin accepted in theory that adultery ought to be punished with death penalty, the Genevan reality was very different, because Calvin was preaching from the mercy of God day by day.

Calvin’s thoughts on Christian marriage and family life raised several historical, judiciary and social questions. An examination of Juhász Péter Méliusz’s Debrecen-Egervölgyi Confession and Major Articles shows that Calvin’s heritage deeply influenced the Hungarian Reformed teaching on engagement, marriage and divorce. Nonetheless, the readers will find that the reformers of the “Hungarian Reformed Church” did not cite directly the theological and ethical works of Calvin or Luther concerning the questions of fornication and adultery. An examination of the operation of the Magistracy of Debrecen reveals that, in case of adultery, sinners were allowed to receive the clemency of their spouses, extricating them from the legal procedure with this merciful statement: “I take no pleasure in the death of the wicked” (Ezech 33,11). Between 1547 and 1625 only 26 people (female: 17, male: 9) out of a total of 241 persons (female: 136, male: 105) accused of fornication and adultery were actually executed. Nevertheless, death sentence was promulgated in cases of serious fornication mixed with sexual violence or murder of infants.

The reception of John Calvin’s theology and social thoughts in Hungary raises several historical, judicial and theological questions. The multi-faceted legacy of Péter Melius Juhász makes it clear that Calvin’s theological and ethical considerations had a profound impact on the sixteenth century moral life of the local townsfolk of Debrecen. But the exploration of the practical aspects of this influence has been neglected in current Calvin-studies. For this reason, the primary intention of the present study is to show what practical implications in the field of public morals the ecclesiastical and literary ministry of the early modern preachers of Geneva and Debrecen had. Readers will find that the Hungarian reformers did not directly refer to the written legacy of Luther or Calvin, but the sifting examination of the Registers of the Magistrates of Debrecen contributes significantly to demonstrating the effectiveness of the doctrines preached by the reformers in Eastern Hungary. Moreover, the elaboration on the public morals of Debrecen also allows a comparison of the moral life of the inhabitants of the two Reformed cities of Geneva and Debrecen.

The current article is the second part of a wider project, which aims to offer a systematic overview of the finance and accounting regulations in Romania pertinent to the churches, as well as of the church’s internal regulations regarding financial and accounting obligations and customs, and some accounting principles. In this part we focus on cash management, banking and budget. This paper is written primarily for Reformed ministers, students preparing for ministry, as well as church auditors working in church bookkeeping, accounting and finances.

According to Josephus Flavius, the first Roman procurator of Judea, Coponius (AD. 6-9) was sent by Augustus with power, including a “power to perform executions”. This power has been questioned regarding his successors. Some of the prefects in Judea seem to have lacked full authority in this respect. Historical sources seem to suggest that Judea was a subdivision of the larger province of Syria. The current study addresses the question of relationship between the legate of Syria and the governor of Judea, as well as the limits of the authority of the governor of Judea. Besides, we offer a presentation of the provincial governance in the Roman Empire, and a short introduction into the development of several institutions and judiciary matters. This article aims to contribute to a better understanding of the provincial governance and justice in Judea in which Jesus was condemned to death.

John Calvin transformed the theology and law of sex, marriage and family life. Building on a generation of Protestant reformers, Calvin constructed a comprehensive new theology and law that made the conclusion and dissolution of marriage, the nurturing and welfare of children, family cohesion and support, sexual sin and crime essential concerns for both church and state. He drew the Consistory and Council of Geneva into a creative new alliance to guide and govern the reformation of the intimate domestic sphere. Calvin and his colleagues applied and adapted this new theology in hundreds of marriage and family-related lawsuits that were passed before the Consistory each year. „He set out his theological and ethical reforms in rich number of sermons, commentaries, and systematic writings” (John Witte). Despite the efforts of the Consistory and Council of Geneva, there were numerous cases of homosexuality, paedophilia, sexual assault, and bestiality, which made Calvin constantly anxious. He believed, if magistrates do not punish sexual crimes (e.g. adultery, fornication, sodomy), “a door will be thrown open for any kind of treachery, for poisoning, and murder, and robbery” and “Paul therefore denounces punishment not only on adulterers, but also on fornicators, for both depart from the holy institution of God”. For this reason, Calvin admitted, it would be good to drive out such public fornicators from the city in order to avoid scandals and to keep them from abusing themselves by fornication. Calvin’s legal and theological standpoint was: there is a greater danger in not punishing the crime or hiding the punishment, than in exerting a public and exemplary punishment with the aim of prevention. This is why the Genevan Council applied death penalty so often. But Calvin continued to preach about the Grace of God day after day.

In the article below, I offer a systematic overview of the financial and accounting regulations in Romania, of the church’s internal regulations regarding financial and accounting obligations and customs, as well as some of the accounting principles. This article addresses primarily reformed pastors, church auditors and office managers who work with church bookkeeping, accounting and finances, but it can also be used by students, who inevitably need to become familiar with the rules of bookkeeping and financial management.

This article discusses aspects related to the Jewish self-governance in the 1st century A.D. We attempt to inquire into the following questions: What powers did the Sanhedrin who condemned Jesus have during the Roman rule? Did it have any authority to inflict death penalty? What were the rules of procedure in case of the Sanhedrin?

Many archaeologists are involved in excavations in the lands of the Bible, and each year an increasing number collection of artefacts are unearthed that offer us a glimpse on the background of the biblical history and texts. This article presents the top archaeological findings connected to the Bible, reported in 2018. The incredible treasures from the tomb of prophet Jonah came to light thanks to tunnels dug by ISIS. The “Yerushalayim” inscription on an ancient column dated to 100 B.C. is the first known appearance of the name of Jerusalem in Hebrew or Aramaic written in stone. The clay pomegranate found at Tel Shiloh is dating back to the First Iron Age, to the times of the Tabernacle of ancient Shiloh. An extremely rare seal impression discovered at Jerusalem’s Western Wall plaza and bearing the inscription “Belonging to the governor of the city” confirms specific biblical information. A tiny stone weight engraved with ancient Hebrew letters spelling the word Beka, dating to the First Temple period, was discovered in situ on the north of the early City of David. During the renewed excavations at the foot of the Southern Wall of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, a minuscule bulla or seal impression was discovered, with the text probably reading “Isaiah the prophet”. It was discovered in the same layer where some years ago a similar seal impression was found with the inscription: “Belonging to King Hezekiah of Judah.”

This article remembers Rev. Antal Mihály Nagy and presents his work as a theologian. For some generations to come he will surely be remembered as the „Israel-theologian” of the Hungarian Reformed Church. As a former student of his, I remember his conviction that Israel and the Church, sharing the same covenant, are inseparable. Secondly, I remember his strong belief that a history of Israel cannot be written apart from the credo of Israel. Finally, I remember his open attitude towards his students, his clear preaching and his humble way in presenting his life-long experiences and theological explanations. The article acknowledges his deep interest in theological education and spiritual formation of his students at the Reformed Theological Academy of Sárospatak.

The consolidation of the entire law system of Hungary during the 19th century (e. g. laws of 38/1868, 34/1874, 43/1895, and 33/1896) created a brand-new alliance between Austria (ruled by the Habsburg-house) and Hungary, which paved the way for the practical fulfillment of the Kiegyezés (Compromise / Ausgleich) in 1867. This special legal situation influenced not only the everyday life but also the higher educated levels of the so-called “Reformed Church of Hungary”. In this sparkling intellectual sphere, several essays, books, and cyclopedia were published related to the history of the Reformation and the life of John Calvin. Among the pieces of this irretrievable literary heritage, the collection of Calvin-biographies (1864−1906) written in Hungarian bears a distinctive role. In spite of the rich history of Hungarian Calvin-research, the several portraits of Calvin illuminated by these biographies have not been examined until now. Among the prominent representatives of the Hungarian Calvin researchers, Imre Révész did the first substantial contribution to the opening of the closed world of Calvin’s collective memories in Hungary. One of his best-known books was the Life of Calvin (1864). It was the first biography of Calvin published in Hungarian. However, Révész’s evaluation of Calvin’s personality and his role for example in Servetus’ death caused a long-standing debate in the published and the unpublished works of Calvin-researchers as well. Namely, Révész and his famous follower, Ferenc Balogh (1864), believed the reformer was “quite innocent” in the death penalty of Servetus, but their literary “opponents”, for instance Ferenc Szilágyi (1864), Pál Schneider (1877), Károly Szász (1878), Lajos Warga (1887), Ferenc Kanyaró (1891), and Jenő Zoványi (1908), depicted Calvin as a bloodthirsty tyrant, dictator of Geneva who persecuted intellectual freedom entirely.

Contemporaries of Calvin were less preoccupied with the Servetus-affair than modern researchers. Calvin is known to have taken care of the formal complaint and legal proceeding against Servetus. The evaluation of his person and role in Servetus’ death caused long-standing debates among the prominent representatives of the Hungarian Calvin researchers. For instance, Imre Révész, Sr., in his famous Calvin biography (Life of Calvin, 1864) and his follower, Ferenc Balogh (1864) believed the reformer was „quite innocent” in the death penalty of Servetus, but their literary opponents, namely Ferenc Szilágyi (1864), Károly Szász (1878), Lajos Warga (1887), Ferenc Kanyaró (1891), and Jenő Zoványi (1908) depicted Calvin as a bloodthirsty tyrant, dictator of Geneva who persecuted intellectual freedom.

For many people the church is a place of refuge and solace, a place where they may feel comfortable and closer to God. But for some the church represents a mirror of their personal failures, and a reminder of the fact that they are „not good enaught.” While for many, belief in God is a way of overcoming anxiety and turning to God is a valuable tool for gaining strength against anxiety disorders, for some people church could be a place that creates fear or gives way to thoughts that end up in anxiety or panic attack. While panic attacks may occur during church service or other church activities, this article offers a presentation of crisis intervention with a special focus to panic attacks. After that we continue with discussions on the issue of panic at pastoral visitations.

There are several types of anxiety disorders including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobias. While each anxiety disorder has a different set of symptoms describing the disorder, each one involves a certain level of recurring, irrational and excessive fear. Anxiety disorders may cause distress that interferes with a person’s ability to lead a normal life. In this article we will focus on panic disorder and the possibilities of pastoral care. First we will look at panic disorder and some related phobias, such as generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and agoraphobia. We continue with the therapeutic ways of psychiatry and psychotherapy, and will end up, with the special aspects of pastoral care.

Living in an era where major corporations are being found guilty of illegal accounting practices, churches have to pay more attention to tax-related issues. Paying taxes is not an option but a responsibility. Nonetheless due to the many interpretations of the Tax Code, there are cases when officials intentionally or unintentionally abuse it. The constructive role of the churches in Romanian society is recognised by the lawgiver by offering tax relief or recognising tax-free activities. In this article we aim to clarify tax regulations for the churches and to present possible cases for tax relief and tax-free activities in the Romanian context, discussing all tax types relevant for the church, like Real Estate Taxes, Value Added Taxes, sponsoring-related profit tax deductions, etc.

After World War II many questions were raised by the „generation of sons” to their fathers regarding the war. There was an urgent need to cope with the past somehow. In this past elaboration the voice of the victims was worth to listen to and forgiveness of the aggressors became a major question of the society. This article was born from a study of western forgiveness-discussions and presents the Hungarian forgiveness-ethos after the end of the Great War and the big changes of 1989. More precisely it presents some of the reasons why the subject of forgiveness was lacking in Hungarian reformed theology. Shortly after the trauma of the Great War pax sovietica arrived. There was no time to distance oneself enough from the harms of the previous period and to raise and develop a public discussion on subjects like forgiveness and reconciliation because new traumas had to be faced.There was no time to cope with the past of the war, and there was no possibility (because it was not allowed) to speak out those harms until the end of the communist regime.Due to the special geopolitical situation of Eastern Europe, the isolation from western theology and with country-borders divided, Hungarian reformed theology has developed into two different directions. In Hungary the “theology of the serving church” became the unison voice of the church, while in Transylvania, building on the foundation of “new reformation theology”, a special Word-theology was born and developed into a pan-homiletic direction. Homiletics became the crown of theological studies, and every study of theology (historical, biblical, systematic and practical) had to offer some results for preaching.

This paper focuses on the early period of the reformer’s ministration, who was a very learned teacher, pastor and theologian at Geneva and Strasbourg. In these places he implemented his theological and ethical convictions against the destructive works of the Anabaptist radicals. Due to the persistently growing popularity of their heretical ideas concerning Christian baptism, church discipline, the Lord’s Supper, separation from the world, civil authority, and oaths, after the publication of his so called Psychopannychia (1534) and the Institutes (1536), Calvin had to continue his polemic fight against the left wing of the reformation. It is by no means surprising that Calvin’s works of 1537–1544 – for instance The Genevan Confession and Catechism,The Articles and the Brief Instruction for Arming all the Good Faithful against the Errors of the Common Sect of the Anabaptists – are full of religious and moral refutations opposing those whose beliefs were based on the “hated” articles of Confessio Schlattensis.

In the early period of the Reformation, this multifaceted radical movement divided the Protestantism into two theological camps. To magisterial reformers (Zwingly, Luther, Calvin), the task of the reformation was not only to remove impurities but to maintain continuity. Anabaptist reformers, on the other hand, saw the task of the reformation as a necessity for a new church modelled not on Catholicism before Boniface (as Luther considered) but on the church before Constantine, or even on the New Testament.